The oratorio—a musical drama in concert form with sacred or moral themes, inspired by biblical subjects or the lives of saints—enjoyed extraordinary success during the reign of Francesco II d’Este (1660–1694), Duke of Modena, who ascended the throne in 1674 after deposing his mother, the regent Laura Martinozzi, niece of Cardinal Giulio Mazarini and widow since 1663 of Duke Alfonso IV. A devoted patron of music, and particularly of the oratorio form, Francesco II fostered a prolific output that made Modena one of the most flourishing musical centers in the last quarter of the 17th century: 110 oratorios were performed between 1680 and 1702 under his reign and in the early years of his uncle Rinaldo’s, who succeeded him in 1694.

This success was due in part to the nature of the oratorio itself, which, given its religious and moralizing content, could be performed even during periods such as Lent and Advent, when ordinary theatrical productions were prohibited, thus satisfying the court’s desire for lawful entertainment. Composed by accomplished musicians and writers associated with the Ducal Chapel—or “imported” from other centers, with Modena acting as a “hub of attraction”—the oratorios performed under Francesco’s patronage sometimes reflected the political circumstances of his state, such as those celebrating the Este dynasty, particularly following prestigious marriages.

Indeed, the Duke’s sister, Maria Beatrice (1658–1718), married the Duke of York, James Stuart, brother of King Charles II of England, by proxy ceremony on 30 September 1673. The union between the fifteen-year-old princess, who had wished to take the veil at the Visitation Monastery of Modena, and the over fifty-year-old duke was strongly encouraged by Louis XIV of France and especially by Pope Clement X Altieri, as James Stuart—heir to the crown since Charles had no legitimate offspring—had recently converted to Catholicism, opening the prospect of England’s return to the Roman Church. Upon Charles II’s death in 1685, the Duke of York became King James II Stuart, with Maria Beatrice, Mary of Modena, as his consort—the only English queen of Italian birth.

However, the profound religious divide between the Catholic monarchs and the predominantly Protestant, anti-papal nation led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, forcing the royal couple, with their son James Francis Edward—the future Jacobite pretender James III—to seek refuge at the French court of Louis XIV. England would then be ruled by the Protestant joint sovereigns William III of Orange and his wife Mary II Stuart, daughter of James II by his first marriage to Anne Hyde.

Several oratorios contain allusions to Maria Beatrice d’Este’s life, unified by the aim of “promoting the steadfast Christian virtues and unwavering Catholic faith of the Este family to the pope and other European rulers.” The first is La Gran Matilde, also referred to as La Matilde d’Este, with text by Alfonso Colombo (or Colombi) and music by Don Antonio Maria Pacchioni (1654–1738). This oratorio, one of the highest achievements of the prolific Este-era output, was performed in 1682 at the now-lost Oratory of San Carlo Rotondo, Francesco II’s preferred venue for such entertainments.

Like other oratorios, it draws inspiration from an “Este ancestor”—or rather, in the case of Matilda of Canossa, a figure imagined as such in mythical genealogies. The Great Countess was connected to the Este dynasty only by the extremely tenuous links that joined nearly all major medieval houses. In the libretto, the author identifies clear elements alluding to the preliminaries of Maria Beatrice’s marriage. While Matilda serves to highlight the nobility of the House of Este, she also exemplifies a ruler faithful to the Church during the Investiture Controversy, opposing Emperor Henry IV against Pope Gregory VII—a “schismatic” moment in Christianity that, in the 17th century, was seen as a prefiguration of the Protestant Reformation. Matilda supported the Papacy in a role many contemporaries attributed to Maria Beatrice. Indeed, the oratorio’s dedication by Alfonso Colombo, addressed to Francesco II, begins by calling her “Your Great MATILDE (…) Great Heroine, Protector of the Vatican.”

Thus, the story of the Great Countess is arbitrarily rewritten to align with biographical traits of Maria Beatrice, making Matilda’s choices in the libretto a prefiguration of the Modenese princess’s own reluctant acceptance of marriage. The “Argument” (summary of the oratorio’s plot) intertwines a fanciful tale of Matilda’s second marriage—after her first to Geoffrey the Hunchback of Lorraine—to Welf V of Swabia, of the Bavarian dynasty, in 1089. To oppose Emperor Henry, “fierce persecutor of the Church,” the pope arranges the union and sends a nuncio to persuade Matilda. Matilda initially refuses, wishing to lead a chaste life, but finally consents under the nuncio’s influence, while preserving her celibacy. Welf arrives in time, enabling a triumph of Catholic arms. The story celebrates Matilda’s fidelity to the papacy, subtly paralleling Maria Beatrice’s own situation.

According to Arnaldo Morelli’s convincing hypothesis, another oratorio alludes to Maria Beatrice’s biography: Santa Editta, Virgin and Nun, Queen of England, with text by the Roman prince Lelio Orsini, music by Alessandro Stradella, performed in Modena at San Carlo Rotondo in 1684, likely conducted by the Bolognese Giovan Battista Vitali, maestro of the Este chapel from 1684 to 1692. The oratorio was likely composed in Rome in 1672–1673, during Este-Stuart marriage negotiations. Edith of Wilton, daughter of the Anglo-Saxon King Edgar the Peaceful, revered as a saint, had chosen a cloistered life but did not abandon worldly display; the oratorio emphasizes her moral virtues, aided by allegorical figures—Grandezza, Bellezza, Nobiltà, and Senso—who urge her to accept the throne, and Humiltà, who supports her religious choice.

The coronation of the Catholic monarchs on 23 April 1685 at Westminster Abbey was celebrated in Modena by an “Academy of the Coronation of the Queen of England,” with a cantata by Giovanni Battista Vitali, beginning triumphantly: Donde avien che tutt’ebro di vera gioia l’universo: “In the English seat, / Banner of Faith, / Piety already unfurls,” sung by the Accademia dei Dissonanti, established by Francesco II in 1683.

A politically charged oratorio is L’Ambitione debellata overo la Caduta di Monmuth, music by Vitali, text by Giovanni Andrea Canal, printed in Modena in 1686. It celebrates King James II’s suppression of the revolt led by his Protestant illegitimate nephew James Scott, Duke of Monmouth. Performed at San Carlo Rotondo, the allegorical drama features characters representing the English king, queen, Monmouth, and other figures. Maria Beatrice is shadowed in the queen character defending Catholicism.

Other oratorios subtly reference the fate of the Stuarts and the Glorious Revolution. For instance, Il fasto depresso nell’umiltà esaltata. Oratorio per S. Edoardo II Re d’Inghilterra, text by Michele Pallai, music by Clemente Monari, performed in 1692, presents a conspiracy at the English court, with allegorical commentary on the Protestant usurpation and Catholic loyalty.

The marriage of Maria Beatrice brought international prominence to the Este duchy, tying it to the destiny of the powerful English kingdom. Its political, religious, and ideological significance inspired composers such as Alessandro Stradella, Arcangelo Corelli, Antonio Maria Pacchioni, Giovan Battista Vitali, and Giovan Lorenzo Lulier during a particularly vibrant musical period between Francesco II’s Modena and papal Rome.

Captions

1. Late 18th century, Maria Beatrice d’Este Stuart, Queen of England. Camera dei Verdi, Palazzo Ducale di Sassuolo (Modena).
2. Giuseppe Maria Mitelli (1634–1718), Francesco II d’Este, Duke of Modena, etching.
3. Benedetto Gennari (1633–1715), Maria Beatrice d’Este Stuart and her son James. Private collection.